India
Space Programmes
Indian Space Agencies
Despite its limited resources,
India has and is continuing to develop a broad-based space
program with indigenous launch vehicles, satellites, control
facilities, and data processing. Since its first satellite
was orbited by the USSR in 1975 and its first domestic space
launch was conducted in 1980, India has become a true space-faring
nation and an example to other Eurasian countries wishing
to move into the space age. Today's Indian remote sensing,
communications, and meteorological satellites are comparable
to many similar space systems operated by more affluent countries,
and by the end of the decade India may be one of only a half
dozen countries/organizations with a geostationary launch
capability.
An inter-ministerial Space
Commission coordinates space-related issues at the highest
government levels for policy-making and implementation through
the Department of Space and ISRO. Along with ISRO in the Department
of Space are the National Remote Sensing Agency, the National
Natural Resources Management System, the National Mesosphere
Stratosphere-Troposphere Radar Facility, and the Physical
Research Laboratory.
India and Space Transportation Systems
Following on the heels of
the first successful launch of its Augmented Satellite Launch
Vehicle (ASLV) in 1992, India tested the more capable Polar
Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) during 1993-1994, achieving
success on the second attempt. Coupled with another ASLV mission
in 1994, India's three launch attempts in the two-year period
represented its most active campaign since its indigenous
space program began in 1979 (Figure 2.10). Meanwhile, the
development of India's substantially larger Geosynchronous
Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) continues toward a projected
maiden flight later in this decade.
All Indian space launches
are conducted from the Sriharikota High Altitude Range (SHAR)
on Sritharikota Island off the east coast of India in the
Bay of Bengal. The original SLV-3 launch complex was converted
to support the ASLV. Two new complexes with one pad each to
the south were selected to support the PSLV and GSLV. The
Vikran Sarabhai Space Center at the southern tip of India
is the site of most launch vehicle stage development.
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Space Launch
Vehicle (SLV)
India's capability in the
launch vehicle technology was first demonstrated through the
successful launch of SLV-3 in July 1980, which placed a 40
kg Rohini satellite into a near-earth orbit. Two more launches
of SLV-3 were conducted in May 1981 and April 1983 with the
Rohini satellites.
Augmented
Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV)
The original Indian SLV-3
launch vehicle was a four-stage, solid-propellant booster
with a LEO payload capacity of less than 50 kg into an orbit
with a mean altitude of 600 km at an inclination of 47 degrees.
Following an initial failure, the SLV-3 successfully orbited
three Rohini Satellites in 1980, 1981, and 1983, respectively
(Reference 69). The ASLV was created by adding two additional
boosters modified from the SLV-3's first stage and by making
other general improvements to the basic SLV-3 4 stage stack.
The ASLV is actually a five-stage vehicle since the core first
stage does not ignite until just before the booster rockets
burn out. The payload capacity of the ASLV is approximately
150 kg to an orbit of 400 km with a 47 degree inclination
(Reference 70).
The first launch of the ASLV
on 24 March 1987 failed when the bottom stage of the core
vehicle did not ignite after booster burn-out. The second
attempt ended with the Rohini payload falling into the Bay
of Bengal on 13 July 1988 when the vehicle became unstable
and broke up soon after release of the booster rockets. Finally,
on 20 May 1992 the SROSS 3 (Stretched Rohini Satellite Series)
was inserted into LEO by the third ASLV. However, instead
of obtaining a circular orbit near 400 km, the ASLV only achieved
a short-lived orbit of 256 km by 435 km, not unlike the degraded
performance of the SLV-3 launch of 31 May 1981 (Reference
71).
The fourth ASLV mission in
May, 1994 successfully reached its programmed orbit of 434
km by 921 km with the SROSS C2 payload. The vehicle is likely
to be phased out shortly in favor of the PSLV and due to a
desire to deploy larger, more complex spacecraft than can
be lifted by the ASLV.
Background Information
First Launch: March 1987 (Launch
Failure)
Flight Rate: 1 per year (Intended)
Launch Site: Shar Launch Center (Sriharikota, India)
Capability: 330 lb to 215 nm circular orbit, 46 degree inclination
History
-
Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO) established in 1969 to develop launch
systems.
-
Rohini sounding rockets
provided basis for development of satellite launch vehicle
(SLV)
-
ASLV developed as follow-on
to SLV
Description
-
Four-stage, solid propellant
booster
-
Stage 1 burns HTPB solid
propellant providing 113,000 lb of thrust
-
Stage 2 burns HTPB solid
propellant providing 49,000 lb of thrust
-
Stage 3 burns HEF-20
solid propellant providing 14,400 lb of thrust
-
Stage 4 burns HEF-20
solid propellant providing 4,700 lb of thrust
-
Two solid strap-ons burn
HTPB solid propellant providing 98,900 lb of thrust each
Profile
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Polar Space Launch Vehicle
(PSLV)
 The
PSLV (Polar Space Launch Vehicle) was developed to permit
India to launch its own IRS-class satellites into sun-synchronous
orbits, a service until recently procured commercially via
the USSR/CIS. The design orbital capacity for the PSLV is
one metric ton into a 900 km, 99 degree inclination orbit.
This significant increase in lift is achieved using a 5-stage
design similar to the ASLV: a 4-stagecore vehicle surrounded
by six strap-on boosters of the type developed for the ASLV.
At lift-off only two of the strap-ons and the bottom stage
of the core vehicle are ignited. The other four boosters are
fired at an altitude of 3 km.
The core vehicle possesses an unusual design
consisting of two solid-propellant stages (1 and 3) and two
liquid, hypergolic stages (2 and 4). The first stage also
carries two cylindrical tanks which are part of the Secondary
Injection Thrust Vector Control System (STIVC). The large
liquid engine of the Record stage is designated Vikas and
is essentially an Indian-manufactured Viking engine used by
ESA's Ariane. During 1992 all four stages were certified for
flight in 1993, and full vehicle integration tests were performed
(References 70 and 72).
After some delays the maiden flight of the
PSLV with the IRS-I E Earth observation spacecraft occurred
on 20 September 1993. Although all strap-ons and main engines
performed as expected, an attitude control problem arose after
separation of the second and third stages. Consequently, the
vehicle and its payload failed to reach Earth orbit. A little
more than a year later, on 15 October 1994, the IRS-P2 spacecraft
was inserted into the prescribed sun-synchronous orbit by
PSLV no. 2. Almost immediately afterwards, Indian officials
announced plans for the manufacture of three additional PSLVs
and initial construction for three more. Commercial space
transportation services could be available by 1996 (References
73-80).
Background Information
First Launch: September 1993
Flight Rate: 1 per year
Launch Site: Shar Launch Center (Sriharikota, India)
Capability: 6,610 lb to 215 nm circular orbit, 43 degrees
inclination 2,200 lb ot 490 nm sun-synchronous orbit 990 lb
to Geotransfer orbit, 43 degree inclination
History
- Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)
established in 1969 to develop space launch systems
- Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) developed
as third generation follow-on to Augmented Satellite Launch
Vehicle (ASLV)
- Designed for delivery of 2,200 lb Indian
Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites to polar sun-syschronous
orbit
Description
- Four-stage vehicle
- Stage 1 burns HTPB solid propellant providing
806,000 lb of thrust
- Stage 2 uses one Vikas engine that burns
UDMH/N2O4 providing 163,000 lb of thrust
- Stage 3 burns HTPB solid propellant providing
73,900 lb of thrust
- Stage 4 uses two liquid rocket engines
that burn MMH/N2O4 providing 1,700 lb of thrust each
- Six solid strap-ons burn HTPB solid propellant
providing 98,900 lb of thrust each (two are air lit)
Profile
- Length: 145.1 ft
- Launch Weight: 606,000 lb
- Diameter 9.2 ft
- Liftoff Thrust: 1,200,000 lb
- Payload Fairing: 27.2 ft x 10.5 ft
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Geosynchronous
Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)
 In
the 1980's India began designing the GSLV, a Delta-II class
medium launch vehicle, with an objective of placing 2.5 metric
ton payloads into GTO. The development and launch of the GSLV
rocket is a priority item in the 20-year Indian national space
programme aimed at creating a dense satellite network to meet
the country's requirements for telecommunications, Earth sounding,
environmental monitoring and other systems, as well as India's
entrance to the international market of space. The task set
for Indian designers for the near future is to ensure launching
at least one satellite a year.
Drawing heavily on the PSLV,
early concepts for the GSLV borrowed the six strap-on boosters
and first two stages of the PSLV's core vehicle. A later design
suggested replacing the solid strap-on boosters with four
liquid units similar to the second stage of the core vehicle.
The third stage was to incorporate an indigenous liquid oxygen/liquid
hydrogen engine with a thrust of approximately 12 metric tons.
Component development for this engine was already underway
in the late 1980's, and subscale development was still on-going
in 1992 (References 70, 81, and 82).
However, in an attempt to maintain
the GSLV development schedule which called for a first flight
as early as 1997, India in 1992 contracted with Russia to
buy a liquid oxygen/liquid hydrogen engine (KVD-1/KVD-7.5)
developed in the 1970's for the heavy-lift N-1 launch vehicle.
The plan, which had been in negotiations since 1988 came under
fire from the US which considered the transfer of such technology
a violation of the Missile Technology Control Regime. Eventually,
a compromise was reached which allowed the Russian Federation
to supply a limited number of engines to India (seven) without
the transfer of critical technologies. The first engine was
delivered in 1996 for the planned inaugural GSLV mission in
late 1997 or early 1998. Test firings of lower stage GSLV
motors were underway in 1994 (References 83-96).
The GSLV is a three stage vehicle.
The first stage is a 129 tonne solid propellant core motor
with four liquid propellant strap-ons with 40 tonne propellant
each. The second stage is a liquid propulsion system with
37.5 tonnes of propellant. The cryogenic upper stage has 12
tonnes of liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen.
The first flight of the GSLV
in mid-2000 will carry the experimental GSAT-1, that is aimed
at demonstrating advanced communication technologies. Even
though the initial flight of the GSLV would be using a Russian
cryogenic engine, the second or the third flight in 2001 or
in 2002 would use the Indian-built CUSP (Cryogenic Upper Stage
Project) engine.
The delivery to India of Russian
cryogenic acceleration blocks (CAB) (the so-called cryogenic
engines) and preparations for launching a GSLV (Geosynchronous
Satellite Launch Vehicle) equipped with a CAB is a major joint
project between India and Russia. It is expected in India
that with the help of CABs they would be able to launch into
a geosynchronous orbit effective loads of up to 2.5 tons and
thereby join the narrow group of states (Russia, the US, France
and China) with a similar potential in this field.
Under the initial contract
signed in January 1991 the Soviet Union was not only to supply
CAB to India as ready-made units, but also the know-how for
their production in India. The second Russian-Indian contract
concerning the GSLV project, signed in April 1992, provides
for the delivery of equipment, assembly and testing of CAB
ground support systems by Russia. However, at the end of 1993,
as Russia joined the Missile Technology Control Regime, the
terms of the contract were revised and now it provides for
the delivery to India of 7 operating CAB specimens without
transferring the know-how for their production.
The contracts signed by the
Russian State Committee for Space Exploration and the Indian
Space Research Organisation [ISRO] were to be performed on
the Russian side by the Salyut Design Bureau of the Khrunichev
Research and Production Centre. Salyut opened its representative
office in Madras, 100 km from the SHAR space launch grounds
(Sriharikota Peninsula, Andhra-Pradesh), because the assembly,
autonomous systems tests and comprehensive tests of CAB demanded
permanent presence of Russian specialists, from 6 to 50 persons
at a time.
For this project, nitrogen,
hydrogen, oxygen and other compressed gases supply systems,
an automated control system for the preparation and fuelling
of CABs were developed and made in Russia. More than 80 railway
freight cars of equipment were delivered to the SHAR Centre
space-launch grounds by sea. In 1996 a CAB model was delivered;
its transportation of which by air (AN-124) cost to India
US$200,000. In 1998 the fuelling CAB model and the first of
the seven flying blocks were delivered. Compressed gases supply
and hydrogen purification systems were adjusted and subjected
to autonomous testing, as well as fuelling and other automated
control systems were adjusted both at the launching grounds
and at the Centre for Liquid-Propelled Engine Systems (Mahendraghiri,
Tamilnadu). For this purpose almost 160 Russian specialists
were sent to India during 1998 for a term of up to 2 months
and some 50 specialists for shorter terms. At the SHAR launching
grounds, autonomous systems tests were completed and the automated
control system was adjusted. Comprehensive tests in mid-1999
were the final stage of preparatory work.
The repeatedly postponed launching
of the GSLV with a cryogenic accelerating block was scheduled
for September 1999. The launch was delayed through the fault
of both parties: the Indians were unable to fulfil their part
of work in time, while the Russian side had to face financial
and economic difficulties.
Ground equipment delivered
to the SHAR space center will be maintained for 20 years under
the designer's supervision to be exercised by Salyut which
is to provide additional supplies of units and systems under
new contracts.
For the purpose of expanding
satellite launch potentiality the Indian leadership resolved
to build another launching complex on Sriharikota Peninsula
which would cost several billion dollars. Leading Indian companies
are competing to obtain a contract under this state order.
The degree of possible participation of Russian enterprises
in this project has not yet been defined and will depend on
the success of the CAB contracts.
India would not be able to
develop their own cryogenic engine before 2005. In the opinion
of Indian scientists, necessary conditions for the successful
implementation of the project are available. According to
the director of the Centre for Liquid-Propelled Engine Systems
(Indian CAB development head organisation), they have completed
design of a 7.5 ton engine and signed a contract for its manufacture
with Indian companies, Godrej and Machine Tools and Reconditioning
(MTAR).
In addition, the work is in
progress on the creation of an infrastructure for servicing
cryogenic engine-propelled rocket launches. For instance,
since August 1996, ISRO has been producing cryogenic rocket
fuel at a plant built with the assistance of Germany in Mahendraghiri
(Tamilnadu), with a capacity of up to 8,000 litres of liquid
oxygen, 5,500 litres of hydrogen and 2,500 litres of nitrogen;
construction of testing grounds has been started there also.
Furthermore, India has already built basic facilities for
testing the turbine pump and engine control system. In the
opinion of ISRO specialists, their CAB will be similar to
Russian engines in terms of technical characteristics, but
will be lighter and more powerful.
At the same time, CAB manufacturers
faced certain difficulties. In particular, the low quality
and insufficient supplies of the necessary aluminum and scandium
alloys and of other special alloys will bring the engine's
load capacity down to 1,000 kg instead of the planned 2,500
kg. In the absence of know-how for the so-called "wafer
structure" and special equipment for large-diameter casing
welding, the Indian side has to purchase containers for CABs
from the French company Arianespace.
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India and
Satellite Communication Systems
India first experimented with
geosynchronous telecommunications relays in 1981 and now has
three active spacecraft in GEO. Moreover, the launch of INSAT
2A in July, 1992, marked the debut of India's first domestically
built operational GEO space-craft. In a departure from most
nations, India's GEO platforms combine a communications mission
with that of Earth observation.
- APPLE
- INSAT 1
- INSAT 2
- INSAT 3
- ASC Network
Apple
India's first experimental
GEO communications satellite, APPLE (Ariane Passenger Payload
Experiment), was launched on the third test flight of the
Ariane launch vehicle in June, 1981. For 27 months (until
attitude control fuel depletion) the 350-kg Apple successfully
served as a testbed for the entire Indian telecommunications
space relay infrastructure despite the failure of one solar
panel to deploy. APPLE was used in several communication experiments
including relay of TV programmes, and radio networking. It
provided valuable experience to Indian space scientists in
building and operating geostationary communication satellites.
The spacecraft bus was cylindrical with a diameter of 1.2
m and a height of 1.2 m. The communications payload consisted
of two 6/4 GHz transponders connected to a 0.9 m diameter
parabolic antenna.
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INSAT 1
Between 1982 and 1990 four
U.S.-built INSAT 1 satellites were launched to support Indian
domestic communications and Earth observation requirements
as a joint venture among the Indian Department of Space, the
Department of Telecommunications, the Meteorological Department,
All-India Radio, and All India Doorarshan Television. The
Ford Aerospace spacecraft had a mass of 650 kg on station
and carried twelve 6/4 GHz transponders with an output power
of 4.5 W and three (two active plus one backup) 6/2.5 GHz
transponders. Both INSAT 1A (April, 1982) and INSAT1C (July,
1988) were lost due to malfunctions within 18 months of launch.
INSAT 1B (August, 1983) was no longer in operational service
during 1993-1994, instead being used for special experiments.
INSAT 1 D (June, 1990) was operational at 83 degrees E.
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INSAT 2
The INSAT 2 program was underway
in 1983 to develop an indigenous multi-purpose GEO spacecraft
that relied heavily on the previous Ford Aerospace design.
In 1985 the basic spacecraft configuration was adopted, calling
for an on-station dry mass of 860 kg which later rose to 910
kg (1,160 kg at beginning of life). The communications payload
was increased with six additional 7/5 GHz transponders for
a total of 18, plus two S-band transponders. The spacecraft
bus is rectangular with side dimensions of 1.6 m by 1.7 m
by 1.9 m. The asymmetric, accordion type solar panel produces
1.4 kW at beginning of life and is offset on the other side
of the bus by an extendible solar sail (References 91-93).
INSAT 2A was finally launched
on 9 July 1992 by an Ariane booster, about three years behind
schedule. The spacecraft was positioned at the primary INSAT
location of 74 degrees E, which was vacated by INSAT 1B in
April, 1992. INSAT 2B was launched 22 July 1993 by an Ariane
rocket and positioned at 93.5 degrees E. (References 94-95).
In March, 1994, India selected
Arianespace to launch INSATs 2C and 2D in 1995 and 1996, respectively.
The design lifetime is nine years.The spacecraft are similar
to the earlier INSATs but are 200 kg heavier at launch (2,100
kg) and will carry larger solar arrays for 1.6 kW of electrical
power. The communications payload consists of 12 C-band, 6
extended C-band, 3 Ku-band, and 2 S-band transponders plus
a new low-power C-band transponder for a mobile communicatins
feeder. INSAT-2C and INSAT-2D, in addition to carrying communication
transponders in INSAT-2A and 2B, incorporate Ku-band transponders
for business communication, extended coverage C-band transponders
to enable TV programme outreach beyond Indian boundaries catering
to the population from South East Asia to the Middle East
and transponders for mobile service. They do not have the
meteorological payload. INSAT-2C and INSAT-2B are co-located
in the geostationary orbit thus enabling efficient use of
allocated orbital slots.
While INSAT-2A and INSAT-2B
are almost identical twins INSAT-2C and INSAT-2D are different;
they do not carry the meteorological payload. But INSAT-2E,
which was successfully launched on 03 April 1999 by the European
Ariane Rocket at Kourou in French Guyana, carries an improved
version of the VHRR as the meteorological payload. INSAT 2E
also features a special INTELSAT compatibility. DOS will lease
to INTELSAT organization eleven 36 MHz equivalent units of
C-band capacity on board INSAT-2E. The capacity for use by
INTELSAT is being built into INSAT-2E. (References 96-99).
Each INSAT satellite is the
product of the well-orchestrated effort of the four major
centres of ISRO. The main frame of the satellite which carries
the controls, telemetry and tele-command, deployment and power
systems is manufactured by the ISRO Satellite Center at Bangalore,
which also does the mission planning and analysis and manages
the whole project. The gyro units, reaction wheels and momentum
wheels, to keep the satellite stable in orbit, are fabricated
at the Vikram Sarabhai Space Center, Thiruvanthapuram, which
is also responsible for the antenna reflectors and scanning
mechanism for the Very High Resolution Radiometer(VHRR), that
forms the main meteorological payload of INSAT. The VHRR itself
is a contribution of the Space Applications Center, Ahmedabad,
which also provides for communications transponders. Another
vital component, the apogee boost motor (that takes the satellite
from its transfer orbit to the geostationary orbit) and the
thrusters (required for maintaining the satellite in its assigned
slot in orbit) are manufactured at the Liquid Propulsion Systems
Center at Thiruvanthapuram.
INSAT has enabled a vast expansion
in the television service with over 800 TV transmitters linked
through INSAT. The television network provides access to over
80 per cent of India’s population. INSAT-2C and INSAT-2D
enable Indian television outreach beyond Indian boundaries
catering to the population from South East Asia to Middle
East. Educational television service through INSAT has been
introduced both at university level in the national network
and at primary school level in several states including Andhra
Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh. A
channel on the INSAT has been dedicated for development of
education and training. A two-year pilot project for demonstration
of satellite-based developmental communication and training
has been taken up in Jhabua district of Madhya Pradesh.
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INSAT 3
INSAT is unique in its design
combining telecommunication, television and radio broadcasting
and meteorological services on a single platform. The involvement
of various users like Department of Telecommunication, Ministry
of Information and Broadcasting. India Meteorological Department
enabled proper tuning of INSAT system towards identified national
developmental needs. Work on INSAT-3 series of satellites
has already begun. Five satellites in the INSAT-3 series have
been planned and the first two satellites, INSAT-3A and INSAT-3B
were initially planned for launch in 1999 and 2000.
ASC Network
In late 1994, the relatively
new Afro-Asian Satellite Communications (ASC) Ltd., headquartered
in Bombay, was nearing the selection of a manufacturer for
its 2-satellite GEO system. However, the purpose of the ASC
network is to provide communications links to hand-held terminals,
much like the proposed LEO cellular phone networks. The ASC
service area will at first be concentrated in Central and
Southern Asia with later expansion to other parts of Asia
and Africa. The first launch could come as soon as late 1997
(References 100-102).
India undertook the Satellite
Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) in 1975-76 to telecast
a series of educational programs on health, family planning,
agriculture and the like to over 2,500 Indian villages via
the US satellite, ATS-6. It was the largest sociological experiment
ever carried out in the world. The Satellite Telecommunication
Experimental Project (STEP), conducted using Franco-German
Symphonie satellite during 1977-79, was another major demonstration
of communication applications of space.
India has registered an impressive
growth in the telecom sector. Over the years the country has
developed a vast telecom network comprising over 25000 telephone
exchanges and 21.5 million working connections. There is a
large network of optical fibre cables, digital microwave and
satellite communication systems. A very strong industrial
base has been built in the telecom sector with a large number
of national and multinational telecom companies.
A number of policy changes
have been made in the recent past which, if implemented, are
bound to have a significant impact on the telecom scenario.
The most significant among the changes is the announcement
of a New Telecom Policy (NTP) 1999. The policy envisages development
of telecom facilities in remote, rural and tribal areas of
the country and their availability to the masses at affordable
costs. The NTP 1999, which has come into effect from April
1, 1999, aims at making telephones available on demand by
the year 2002 and to achieve teledensity of seven per hundred
persons by the year 2005. In case of rural areas, the current
teledensity is proposed to be raised from 0.4 to 4 by the
year 2010. The policy document of NTP outlines rapid growth
in the telecom sector in India with a projected teledensity
of 15 by the year 2010. This will require a massive investment
of over 23 billion dollars in the next five years.
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India and Earth
Observation Programs
Earth observations have played
a prominent role in the majority of Indian satellites launched
to date. Two of the three space launches attempted by India
during 1993-1994 carried Earth observation spacecraft under
the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) program. IRS-1E
in 1993 and IRS-P2 in 1994. This followed the launch of three
Indian remote sensing spacecraft (by India, the USSR, and
ESA) during the previous 2-year period. The scientific secretary
of the Indian Space Research Organization, M.G. Chandrasekhar,
is also the Director for Earth Observation programs.
- Bhaskara
- IRS
- IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1)
- INSAT 2
Bhaskara
India has 3.3 million sq.km.
land area with varied physical features ranging from snow-covered
Himalaya in the north to tropical forests in south and from
regions in the east receiving highest rainfall in the world
to deserts of Rajasthan in the west. India is also blessed
with vast natural wealth but yet to be exploited fully. A
coastal belt of 7,500 km. has a store of rich aquatic resources.
What better way can be there to monitor and manage the natural
resources for a large country like India than using the powerful
tool of space-based observation systems? India not only demonstrated
the potential of space-based remote sensing in the 70s using
data received from the US satellite, Landsat, but also built
its own experimental satellites, Bhaskara-1 and Bhaskara-2,
which were launched in June 1979 and November 1981, respectively.
IRS (Indian Remote Sensing
Satellite)
Following the successful
demonstration flights of Bhaskara 1 and Bhaskara 2 launched
in 1979 and 1981, respectively, India began development of
an indigenous IRS (Indian Remote Sensing Satellite) program
to support the national economy in the areas of "agriculture
water resources, forestry and ecology, geology, water sheds,
marine fisheries and coastal management". The Indian
Remote Sensing satellites are the main-stay of National Natural
Resources Management system (NNRMS), for which Department
of Space (DOS) is the nodal agency, providing operational
remote sensing data services. Data from the IRS satellites
is received and disseminated by several countries all over
the world. With the advent of high resolution satellites new
applications in the areas of urban sprawl, infrastructure
planning and other large scale applications for mapping have
been initiated.
Remote sensing applications
in the country, under the umbrella of NNRMS, now cover perse
fields such as crop acreage and yield estimation, drought
warning and assessment, flood control and damage assessment,
land use/land cover information, agro-climatic planning, wasteland
management, water resources management, under-ground water
exploration, prediction of snow-melt run-off, management of
water- sheds and command areas, fisheries development, under
development, mineral prospecting forest resources survey,
Active involvement of the user ministries/ departments has
ensured in an effective harnessing of the potential of space-based
remote sensing. An important application of IRS data is in
the Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development (IMSD)
initiated in 1992. IMSD, under which 174 districts have been
identified, aims at generating locale-specific action plans
for sustainable development.
The first two IRS spacecraft,
IRS-1A (March' 1988) and IRS-1B (August, 1991) were launched
by Russian Vostok boosters from the Baikonur Cosmodrome. IRS-1A
failed in 1992, while IRS-1B continued to operate through
1999. From their 22-day repeating orbits of 905 km mean altitude
and 99 degrees inclination, the two identical IRS spacecraft
hosted a trio of Linear Imaging Self-Scanning (LISS) remote
sensing COD instruments working in four spectral bands: 0.45-0.52
µm 0.52-0.59 µm, 0.62-0.68 µm, and 0.77-0.86
µm. The 38.5-kg LISS-I images a swath of 148 km with
a resolution of 72.5 m while the 80.5-kg LISS-IIA and LISS-IIB
exhibit a narrower field-of-view (74-km swath) but are aligned
to provide a composite 145-km swath with a 3-km overlap and
a resolution of 36.25 m.
Each IRS spacecraft is 975
kg at launch with a design life of 2.5-3 years. The 3-axis
stabilized spacecraft is essentially rectangular (1.1m by
1.5 m by 1.6 m) with two narrow solar arrays producing less
than 1 kW electrical power. The Spacecraft Control Center
at Bangalore oversees ail spacecraft operations, but the principal
data reception station for the remote sensing payload is located
at Shadnagar. Spacecraft data transmissions are effected via
X-band and S-band antennas at the base of spacecraft.
IRS-1A and IRS-1B were to
be joined in 1993 with IRS-1E, the modified IRS-1A engineering
model' which had been equipped with the LISS-I and a German
Monocular Electro-Optical Stereo Scanner. The spacecraft was
lost, however, when its PSLV launch vehicle failed to reach
Earth orbit. Thirteen months later, in October, 1994, the
PSLV functioned correctly, allowing IRS-P2 to assume an 820-km,
sun-synchronous orbit. This spacecraft continued in operations
until September 1997. With an 870-kg mass (slightly less than
IRS-1A and IRS-1B), IRS-P2 carried the LISS-II system with
a ground resolution of 32 m across-track and 37m along-track.
The total swath width is 131 km, and the CCD array is tuned
to four spectral bands between 0.45 and 0.86 am. The spacecraft's
solar arrays provide up to 500 W and are linked to conventional
nickel cadmium storage batteries (References 565-570).
As of late 1999 five IRS satellites
were operating, and more were scheduled for launch by the
year 2000. IRS-1C, successfully launched on December 28, 1995
on board a Molniya rocket of Russia, was the last Russian
launch of the program (Molniya rather than Vostok, while IRS-1D
was orbited by India's PSLV. IRS-P3 was launched by PSLV in
1996 with a German modular electro-optical scanner and an
Indian visible-lR scanner.
The Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO) and its commercial marketing arm, ANTRIX
Corp. Ltd., successfully launched the IRS-1D Earth imaging
satellite on 29 September 1997 from Sriharikota, India. The
satellite is an identical twin to the IRS-1C, launched in
December 1995. The dual use of these satellites provides 5.8-meter
resolution images to customers twice as often as was possible
with just the IRS-1C.
IRS-1C and IRS-ID introduced
a heavier (1,350 kg), more capable Earth observation platform.
The spacecraft bus will be similar to those of IRS-1A and
IRS-IB, but a slightly larger solar array generates more than
800 W. Both IRS-1C and 1D produce 5.8-meter panchromatic (0.50.75
µm - black and white) imagery, which is resampled to
five-meter pixel detail. This resolution, which as of early
1998 was the best of any civilian remote sensing satellites
in the world, is superior to the 8-meter resolution initially
reported for the panchromatic imager. These satellites are
also equipped with two-band Wide Field Sensors (WiFS) that
cover a 774-square-kilometer (481-square-mile) area in a single
image, as well as LISS-3 4-band (0.52-0.59, 0.62-0.68, 0.77-0.86,
and 1.55-1.70 µm) multispectral sensors that provide
23.5-meter resolution multispectral coverage. The 23.5-meter
resolution imagery is resampled to produce 20-meter pixel
detail. The spacecraft also carry a 2-channel (0.62-0.68 and
0.77-0.86 µm) wide-field sensor (190 m resolution) (References
568-569, 571-575).
The IRS C,D Pan sensor sacrifices
swath width for its higher resolution. However, it can be
pointed off the orbit path which allows 2 to 4 day revisits
to specific sites. IRS-1C and IRC-1D data can be received
and procured from EOSAT (USA) or in India at the NRSA, Hyderabad.
Upcoming launches include IRS-P5 in 1998, IRS-2A in 2000,
and IRS-2B in 2004, all with the new LISS-4 sensor suite.
IRS-P4 (OCEANSAT-1) will have
payloads, specifically tailored for the measurements of physical
and biological oceanography parameters. An Ocean Color Monitor
(OCM) with eight spectral bands, Multi-frequency Scanning
Microwave Radiometer (MSMR) operating in four frequencies
will provide valuable Ocean-Surface related observation capability.
The OCEANSAT-1 was slated for launch by PSLV in early 1998.
IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) has an
improved sensor system that provides 2.5 m resolution with
fore-aft stereo capability. This mission caters to the needs
of cartographers and terrain modelling applications. The satellite
will provide cadastral level information up to 1:5000 scale
and will be useful for making 2-5 m contour maps.
IRS-P6 (RESOURCESAT-1) will
be a state-of-art satellite mainly for agriculture applications
and will have a 3-band multispectral LISS-IV camera with a
spatial resolution better than 6 m and a swath of around 25
km with across track steerability for selected area monitoring.
An improved version of LISS-III with four bands (red, green,
near IR and SWIR), all at 23 m resolution and 140 km swath
will provide the essential continuity to LISS-III. These sensors
will provide data which will be useful for vegetation related
applications and will allow multiple crop discrimination and
species level discrimination. Together with an advanced Wide
Field Sensor (WiFS) with 80 m resolution and 1400 km swath,
the payloads will greatly aid crop/vegetation and integrated
land and water resources related applications. The IRS-P6
is slated for launch by PSLV by end of 2000.
The IRS-2 series (OCEANSAT-2/CLIMATSAT-1/ATMOS-1)
will be an integrated mission that will cater to global observations
of climate, ocean and atmosphere. Microwave instruments to
cater for oceanographic applications will be mainly a Ku band
Altimeter, Ku band Scatterometer, Microwave Radiometer and
Thermal Infrared Radiometer for observing oceanographic parameters
like winds, sea surface temperature, waves, bathometry and
internal waves. Instruments for atmospheric chemistry applications
include spectrometers, sounders and radiometers for studying
the atmospheric constituents, pollution and for monitoring
ozone and greenhouse effect. Instruments to observe climate
and meteorological parameters will include microwave sounders,
radiometers and rain radars.
IRS-3, beyond 2002, will have
all weather capabilities with multi-frequency and multi polarisation
microwave payloads and other passive instruments.
IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1)
The IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1),
initially scheduled for launch in late 1999 using PSLV-C3,
will be India's first high-resolution earth resources and
imagery intelligence satellite system. With a PAN camera featuring
a ground sample distance of 2.5 meters and Fore-Aft stereo
capability, CARTOSAT-1 will provide a significant improvement
in ground resolution, at the expense of multispectral capability
and smaller area coverage, with a swath width variously reported
as either 10 or 30 kilometers. The 2.5 m resolution will cater
cartographers and terrain modelling applications, providing
cadastral level information up to 1:5000 scale for thematic
applications, useful for making 2-5 m contour maps. The follow-on
CARTOSAT-2 planned for launch in 2002 will offer imagery with
resolution of less than one meter, again with a swath width
of 10 kilometers.
The cabinet on 25 June 1997
approved of proposals for two new remote sensing satellites
to be built by ISRO at Rs 390.07 crore. At a meeting, presided
over by the prime minister, the cabinet approved the proposal
to build an Indian Remote Sensing Satellite-Cartosat-1-at
a cost of Rs 248.49 crore.
TOP
INSAT 2
As noted in the section on
communications satellites, India's INSAT series of geostationary
spacecraft perform the dual missions of communications and
meteorology. INSAT 1-class satellites carry a Very High Resolution
Radiometer (VHRR) working in the visible (0.55-0.75, µm)
and IR (10.5-12.5 µm) bands with resolutions of 2.75
km and 11 km, respectively. Likemany GEO meteorological satellites,
INSAT 1spacecraft require 30 minutes to complete a full Earth
scan. Each vehicle is also capable of receiving (on 402.75
MHz) meteorological, hydrological, and oceanographic data
from remote data collection platforms for relay to central
Indian processing centers.
The INSAT 2 program was inaugurated
in 1992 with the launch of INSAT 2A, followed by INSAT 2B
in 1993. The spacecraft characteristics and communications
payload are described in the section on India's communications
systems. For Earth observations, the VHRR was improved with
2-km resolution in the visible band and 8-km resolution in
the IR band. In addition to full Earth images, the VHRR can
be commanded to scan very limited regions for more rapid return
of time-critical data, e.g., during the approach of cyclones
to the sub-continent. INSAT 2 satellites also carry the Data
Relay Transponder system for collection and retransmission
of data. Three additional INSAT 2 satellites are expected
to maintain this GEO Earth observation capability into the
next century.
The meteorological data gathering
with VHRR instrument on board INSAT and its dissemination,
along with its collection of remote area meteorological data
from unattended platforms, has vastly improved weather forecasting
in the country. Satellite based locale-specific disaster warning
system has been established with over a hundred disaster warning
receivers installed in the cyclone-prone coastal areas. The
twin capability of communication and meteorological imaging
of INSAT is effectively used not only to track cyclone formations
but also to issue warnings to the affected population. About
250 disaster warning receivers have been installed for this
purpose along the cyclone-prone east and west coast of India.
Several thousand lives have been saved by the INSAT disaster
warning system by timely evacuation.
TOP
India and Space
Science
- ASTRONOMY
- GEOPHYSICS
- LIFE
- SOLAR SYSTEM
TOP
Facilities
The Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO) oversees five major centers and various
units. The largest facility is the Vikram Sarabhai Space Center
at Trivandrum, near the southern tip of India, where emphasis
is placed on propulsion and launch vehicle technology as well
as spacecraft subsystems. The ISRO Satellite Center in Bangalore
is the lead center for all satellite development. All Indian
space launches originate from the Srtharikota High Altitude
Range (SHAR) Center on Sriharikota Island in the Bay of Bengal.
The Liquid Propulsion Systems Center is actually distributed
among facilities at Bangalore, Mahendragiri, and Trivandrum.
Finally, the Space Applications Center at Ahmedabad has the
responsibility to ensure that practical applications of space
technology are realized. ISRO also operates a Telemetry, Tracking,
and Command Network for satellite control.
ISRO
- ISRO Headquarters, Bangalore
-
Vikram Sarabhai Space Center (VSSC), Trivandram
- ISRO Satellite Center, Bangalore
- Liquid
Propolusion Systems Center (LPSC), Trivandram
- Space Applications Center, Ahmedabad
- Development and Educational Communication
Unit (DECU), Ahmedabad
- Master Control Facility, Hassan, Karnataka
- ISTRAC (ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command
Network)
o Sriharikota
o Ahmedabad
o Trivandrum
o Car Nicobar
o Kavalaur
- Rocket Launching Stations
o
SHAR - Sriharikota Launching Range
o TERLS
- Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station
o Balasore Rocket Launching Station
- Other
- National
Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA), Hyderabad
- Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun
(part of NRSA)
- Regional Remote Sensing Centers (RRSSC)
o Dehradun
o Nagpur
o Kharagpur
o Bangalore
o Jodhpur
- Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad
TOP
Sources
and Resources
References:
69. N. Kidger, "India's
SLV-3 Launch Vehicle", Spaceflight, February 1982, pp.
72-73.
70. Annual Report, ISRO Headquarters, Department of Space,
Government of India, 1989 and previous years.
71. "Indian Launch Vehicle Accident Inquiry Focuses on
Initial Stage Burn Sequence", Aviation Week and Space
Technology, 24 October 1988, p. 47.
72. H.P. Mama, "India's Rocket Propellant Developments",
Spaceflight , January 1995, p. 32.
73. Press release, Indian Space Research Organization, Department
of Space, PPR:D:65:93, 22 September 1993.
74. A. Lawler and V. Raghuvanshi, "India's Rocket Effort
Falters", Space News, 27 September - 3 October 1993,
pp.1, 28.
75. S. Verma, 'Software Error Blamed for Crash of Indian Rocket",
~1, New Delhi, 3 January 1994.
76. C. Covault, "India Launches New Booster", Aviation
Week and Space Technolony, 24 October 1994, p. 24.
77. V. Raghuvanshi, "India Sets Sights on Launch Market
as PSLV Flight Succeeds", October 1994, p. 9.
78. All-lndia Radio, New Delhi, 29 October 1994.
79. All-lndia Doordarshan Television, New Delhi, 7 December
1994.
80. C. Lardier and V. Raghuvanshi, "Le PSLV Interesse
Les Militaires Indiens", Air & Cosmos, 28 October1994,
p. 35.
81. T. Pirard, "India Develops Cryogenic Engine",
Spaceflight, February 1988, p. 54.
82. All-lndia Radio, 31 August 1992.
83. "GLAVKOSMOS Sternly Rebukes U.S. Allegations As Protectionist",
European Space Report, 16 July 1992, pp. 1-2.
84. A. Lawler, "India's Plan To Buy Russian Stage Draws
U.S. Protests", Space News, 27 April - 3 May 1992, p.36.
85. Krasnaya Zvezda, 16 June 1992, p. 2.
86. Izvestlya, 21 April 1992, p. 5.
87. "Russian Sale of Rocket Engine To India", U.S.
Department of State public release, 11 May 1992.
88. ITAR-TASS, Moscow, 25 June 1992.
89. V. Raghuvanshi, "Yeltsin: Cryogenic Rocket Deal Is
Irrevocable", Space News, 1-7 February 1993, p. 6.
90. ITAR-TASS, Moscow, 26 June 1995.
91. "India Increases Order for Cryogenic Engines",
Space News, 13-19 March 1995, p. 2.
92. V. Raghuvanshi, "Russia, India Discuss Cryogenic
Contract", Space News, 15-28 November 1993, p. 6.
93. A. Lawler and V. Raghuvanshi, "U.S. Sanctions Against
Russia, India To Expire", Space News, 2-8 May 1994, pp.
3, 28.
94. V. Naumov, "Fate of Cosmic Deal", Rosslysklye
Vesti , 4 January 1994, p. 6.
95. All India Doordarshan Television, 15 August 1993.
96. J.M. Lenorovitz, "Ariane-Proton Team Seeks Indian
Contracts", Aviation Week and Space Technology, 16 August
1993, pp. 24-25.
97. P.B. de Selding, "Proton Officials Shrug Off Arianespace
Bid", Space News, 30 August - 5 September 1993. pp 3,
21.
98. P.B. de Selding, "Arianespace Receives Contract for
Indian Launches", Space News, 14-20 March 1994, P. 3.
99. P. Seik, "Intelsat To Lease Transponders on Future
Indian Satellites", Space News, 9-15 January 1995, p.
16.
100. W. Ferster and P.B. de Selding, "Indians pe Into Mobile
Market", Space News, 23-29 January 1995, pp. 1, 20. 101. P.B.
de Selding, UASC Touts Former Military Technology", Space
News, 3-9 July 1995, p. 10. 102. "Innovation From India",
Apogee, Hughes Space News, July 1995.
TOP
Data Courtesy: fas.org
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